Preface - with explanatory notes.

Acknowledgement of the support and provision of facilities for this website; also, the contributors of specimens and information.

Frontispiece and Summary - a Quick Tour of the Ants of Nigerian Cocoa, with links to the main text.

The Many Faces of West African Ants - a selection of the many genera of ants, with links to the main text.

Taxonomic Name Indices - to find species names, modern and historic, and coded "forms" listed in modern literature; also quick access to currently recognised genera.

Catalogues

• Summary catalogue for all sub-Saharan ants (Microsoft Excel 2003 workbook); with hyperlinks to all species pages; also shown availability of descriptions, drawings & photographs; author & date of first description; and, type location.
• Summary catalogue of the distribution of all sub-Saharan ants (Microsoft Excel 2003 workbook).
• The Ants of Africa Linked "clickable" map for ant distribution lists for all sub-Saharan countries with lists and linked spreadsheets for each country.

List of Maps, Illustrations, Figures and Tables.

Ancillary collections of ants from Egypt, the Mediterranean area and Iran - Miscellaneous ants.

Revisions post 1 November 2007.

Taxonomic revisions and new species, etc., unique to this website, as at December 2008.

Chapter 1 - Fascinating Ants

Chapter 2 - Geography & History

• General History of ant collecting and identification - also compilation of known Ant collectors - 1770 to the present.
• Supplement - The Exploration of Africa by Europeans and Colonial Development - up to ca 1907.
• General Geography of West Africa & the Congo Basin.
• Geography & History - Ghana.
• Geography & History - Nigeria.
• Geography & History - Cameroun.
• Geography & History - Ivory Coast.
• Geography & History - Guinea.
• Geography & History - Other West African Countries - Benin, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo.
• Geography & History - Sub-Saharan Burkino Faso, Chad, Mali & Niger.
• Geography & History - Congo Basin - Central African Republic, Congo DR, Congo - Zaïre, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, São Thomé.
• Geography & History - Northeast Africa - Sudan, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea & Somalia.
• Geography & History - East Africa - Burundi, Rwanda, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania & Mozambique.
• Geography & History - Angola.
• Geography & History - Southeastern Africa - Botswana, Malawi, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia & Zimbabwe.

Chapter 3 - Mosaics

• Introduction
• Mosaics - Evidence from Ghana.
• Ghana - 1 - Strickland; Cornwell.
• Ghana - 2 - Leston; Collingwood; Bolton; Evans; Evans & Leston.
• Ghana - 3 - Room.
• Ghana - 4 - Majer.
• Ghana - 5 - Bigger.
• Ghana - 6 - Campbell; Belshaw & Bolton.
• Mosaics - Evidence from Nigeria
• Nigeria - 1 - Gerard; Booker; Entwistle; Eguagie.
• Nigeria - 2 - Taylor; Taylor & Griffin; Taylor & Adedoyin.
• Nigeria - 3 - Adenuga; Adenuga & Adeboyeku.
• Mosaics - Evidence from Cameroun
• Cameroun - 1 - Jackson.
• Cameroun - 2 - Dejean & colleagues.
• Cameroun - 3 - Watts & colleagues.
• Mosaics - Evidence from Ivory Coast
• Ivory Coast - Lévieux and colleagues.
• Mosaics - Evidence from Zaïre
• Zaïre - Dejean & colleagues.
• Mosaics - Conclusions
• Summary synthesis of the mosaic theory.

Chapter 4 - Economic Importance of Ants

• Introduction and Ants and Pests of Cocoa.
• Economic Importance - Ants as Vectors of Plant Disease.
• Ant-plant relationships.
• Doyle McKey's studies of ant-plant relationships.

Chapter 5 - Biodiversity and Niches

• Niches.
• More on Niches.
• Ant Ecology in Guinea - Bernard and Lamotte.
• Examples of Diverse Habitats.
• Summary Tables from various surveys.
• Ants from cocoa in Ghana - Strickland, ca 1950.
• Ants from cocoa in Ghana - Room & Majer, 1969-72.
• Ants from leaf litter in Ghana - Belshaw & Bolton, 1991-2.
• Ants from cocoa in Nigeria - Taylor & Adedoyin, 1974-76.
• Ants from modern collecting in Nigeria, other than on cocoa.
• Ants from forest in Cameroun - Dejean et al, 1991-92.
• Ants from forest and other surveys in Cameroun.

Chapter 6 - Taxonomy

• Introduction
• Taxonomy - Latin nomenclature.
• Taxonomy - Higher Levels of classification and Phylogeny.
• Taxonomy - Tribes.
• Taxonomy - Taxonomic criteria and Glossary.
• Taxonomy - Colour chart collating written descriptions and modern photographic images.

KEY TO SUBFAMILIES

Subfamily Aenictinae - Genus Aenictus - 35 species; 14 with workers described; 21 species known only from the males; a new key to workers is provided. Descriptions are available for all but two of the males. Illustrations are given in the form of drawings for 11 of the workers and (genitalia) for 17 of the males, and, photographs for 4 workers.

Subfamily Aenictogitoninae - Genus Aenictogiton - With new key, males only known, seven species. Descriptions of all. Descriptions of all are available with drawings for five species and photographs of two.

Subfamily Amblyoponinae - introduction and key for separation of genera.

• Genus Amblyopone - three species, plus four undescribed species (one a queen, possibly of one of the named species); with descriptions available for all the named species, with drawings of two species and photographs of all eight forms.
• Genus Concoctio - monotypic, with a description, drawing and photograph.
• Genus Mystrium - One species, with a description, drawing and photograph.
• Genus Prionopelta - three species, with a new key to all three, plus one species from Madagascar; all with descriptions, drawings and photographs.

Subfamily Apomyrminae - Genus Apomyrma - monotypic, with description, drawing and photograph.

Subfamily Cerapachyinae - introduction and separation of genera.

• Genus Cerapachys - 28 species, of which three species are known only from the male; an updated key to workers of 25 species; with descriptions of all species, drawings of 17 and photographs of ten.
• Genus Simopone - thirteen species, two known are only from the queen; With an updated key to workers; full or partial descriptions are available for all species, with drawings of eight and photographs of nine.
• Genus Sphinctomyrmex - two definitive species known from males; plus incompletely described workers of unnamed species from Ivory Coast and Gabon; descriptions are available for two species, with drawings of three and photographs of two.

Subfamily Dolichoderinae - introduction and separation of genera.

• Genus Axinidris - 22 species, with a key; descriptions of all are available, with drawings or SEM images of 15, and photographs of nine five without a drawing).
• Genus Ecphorella - monotypic, the description is available, plus a drawing and a photograph.
• Genus Linepithema - one species is known as an exotic in South Africa, with description and photograph.
• Genus Tapinoma - 17 species, with an original key; descriptions are available for all, with drawings of eleven and photographs of eleven.
• Genus Technomyrmex - 27 species (following the review by Bolton, 2007), one species is known only from the queen; With a key to all, the descriptions of all species are available; drawings are available of 21 species and photographs of eleven.

Subfamily Dorylinae - Genus Dorylus - introduction and new key to subgenera, plus four subsections:

• Subgenus Alaopone - 14 species, workers are known only of five species; the others are known only as males; descriptions are available of all the species and drawings of all but one, in the case of males the illustrations are of the genitalia; there are photographs of the workers of one species.
• Subgenus Anomma - introduction; a new revision and key - 28 species, of which five are known only from sexual stages; descriptions of all species are available; drawings are included of 21 species and there are photographs of twenty-four.
• Subgenus Dorylus - 21 species, eight are known only from males and three only from a queen. with a new key to workers; descriptions are available for all species, drawings are shown for workers of eight species, for four males (genitalia) and for three queens; also photographs of workers of 9 species.
• Subgenus Rhogmus - Six species, only two are known as workers; descriptions are available for all, with drawings of workers of one species, of one queen and of the male genitalia of two species; keys are provided to separate the males and the workers; tehre are photographs of one male.
• Subgenus Typhlopone - One species, with descriptions of all forms, also drawings and photographs.

Subfamily Formicinae - with key to genera.

• Genus Acropyga - three named species, with descriptions and drawings of all three, plus photographs of two; also an undescribed species, with an electron micrograph.
• Genus Agraulomyrmex - two species from southern Africa, with descriptions and drawings.
• Genus Anoplolepis - 13 species, with a new key to all known workers; two species are known only from males & queens and one species is known only from the queen; descriptions are available for all species, with drawings of three species and photographs of five species.
• Genus Aphomomyrmex - one species; the description, drawings and photographs are available.
• Genus Brachymyrmex - one undescribed species; the description and a photomontage are available.
• Genus Camponotus with a guide and subsections for the subgenera:
  • subgenus Mayria - no species from mainland Africa; two examples from Madagascar given.
  • subgenus Myrmacrhaphe - ten species, with a new key; with descriptions of all, a photograph of five species, and drawings of all but one; plus one undescribed form with a drawing.
  • subgenus Myrmamblys - four species, with a new key; with descriptions of all; drawings of two species and photographs of one.
  • subgenus Myrmespera - 10 species, one species known only from the queen; with a new key to workers; descriptions of all and drawings of seven species.
  • subgenus Myrmisolepis - five species; with a new key to workers; descriptions of all, drawings of three species and photographs of three.
  • subgenus Myrmonesites - one species is transferred from subgenus Myrmopiromis as first member from mainland Africa; all others are known from Madagascar. With a description and drawing.
  • subgenus Myrmopelta - five species, with a new key; descriptions of all, drawings of two species and photographs of five species.
  • subgenus Myrmopiromis - seven species, one with only the worker known, one with the worker and queen but not the major (soldier); with a new key; descriptions of all are available, with drawings of five species and photographs of two.
  • subgenus Myrmopsamma - two species from sandy areas of southern Africa; descriptions and drawings of both species are available.
  • subgenus Myrmosaga - eight species from mainland Africa; descriptions are available for all; with drawings of three species, and photographs of three.
  • subgenus Myrmosericus - 11 species; with a new key; descriptions of all are available, with drawings of four species and a photographs of four.
  • subgenus Myrmotrema - 31 species, with a new key; descriptions of all are available, with drawings of seven species and photographs of seven.
  • subgenus Myrmoxygenys - monotypic, with descriptions and drawings.
  • subgenus Orthonotomyrmex - eight species, with a new key; descriptions of all are available, with drawings of six species and photographs of four.
  • subgenus Paramyrmamblys - 17 species, one known only from the queen, with a new key; descriptions of all are available, with drawings of 10 species and photographs of one.
  • subgenus Tanaemyrmex - 57 species, with a new key to all but five species, one is known only from the queen; With descriptions of all, drawings of 33, and photographs of 25; separate pages provide a re-description of Camponotus (Tanaemyrmex) maculatus (Fabricius) sensu stricto and a separate compilation of the numerous purported subspecies and junior synonyms.
  • undetermined forms.
• Genus Cataglyphis - 10 species but two may have been mistakenly identified; with a key; descriptions of all are available, with drawings of eight species and photographs of nine.
• Genus Lepisiota - 54 species, plus two possibly undescribed species, one species is known only from the sexual stages; with new keys to species-groups and workers; drawings of 37 species and photographs of twenty-one.
• Genus Oecophylla - revised to contain four species; "Oecophylla longinoda", with re-examination of variability and a new key; descriptions are given of all, darwings o atwo and photographs of all four.
• Genus Paratrechina - 17 species, one is known only from the sexual stages and one is undescribed; a new key has been developed; descriptions of all are available, with drawings of 13 species and photographs of ten.
• Genus Petalomyrmex - monotypic, description, drawing and photographs provided.
• Genus Phasmomyrmex - four species, one is known only from the queen; descriptions of all are available, also drawings of three and photographs of one.
• Genus Plagiolepis - 21 species; with key; descriptions of all are available, also drawings of 12 and photographs of seven.
• Genus Polyrhachis - 47 species, one is known only from the queen; with an enhanced key; descriptions of all, drawings of 45 and photographs of eleven.
• Genus Pseudolasius - five species, with a key adapted from Menozzi (1924b); plus descriptions and drawings of all, also photographs of one.
• Genus Santschiella - monotypic, with description, drawing and photographs.
• Genus Tapinolepis - nine species, with a new key to all known species, including one from North Africa; descriptions are available of all, with drawings of three species and photographs of three species.

Subfamily Leptanillinae - Genus Leptanilla - three species, with descriptions and drawings of all.

Subfamily Myrmicinae - with illustrated key to 38 genera.

Note - Fernandez (2004) has synonymized Afroxyidris, Oligomyrmex and Paedalgus in the genus Carebara

• Genus Adelomyrmex - unproven from Africa.
• Genus Afroxyidris - monotypic, with a description, drawing and photograph.
• Genus Ankylomyrma - monotypic, with a description, drawing and photograph.
• Genus Atopomyrmex - three species; with key, descriptions and drawings of all are available, with photographs of three.
• Genus Baracidris - two species; with descriptions,drawings and photographs of both.
• Genus Bondroitia - two species, one known only from sexual stages; descriptions of both are available, with a drawing and photographs of one species.
• Genus Calyptomyrmex - 16 species; with a key to workers, descriptions of all are available, with drawings of thirteen, and photographs of five.
• Genus Cardiocondyla - 12 species, one known from the queen only; with a key to workers; descriptions of all are available, with drawings of ten and photographs of six.
• Genus Carebara - 11 species; only five species are known from workers; with keys to workers and queens (eight species); descriptions of all are available, with drawings of seven and photographs of two.
• Genus Cataulacus - 39 species; with a key; descriptions of all species are available; with drawings of twenty-five species and photographs of seventeen.
• Genus Crematogaster - introduction and an updated key to subgenera, which are considered in separate sections; and list of species and forms plus subsections covering
  • subgenus Atopogyne - 17 species; with new key to workers of all but one species; descriptions are available of all but one species, with drawings of eight and photographs of eight.
  • subgenus Crematogaster sensu stricto - 67 species, two are known only from the queen and two remain undescribed; with a new key to workers; descriptions of all are available, plus 41 drawings and photographs of twenty-six.
  • subgenus Decacrema - six species, with new key; descriptions are available for all, with drawings of four species and photographs of three.
  • subgenus Eucrema - included as a single unnamed species was referred to by Bolton, with a drawing, in an unpublished key to the genus
  • subgenus Nematocrema - three species, two species are known only from the queen; two species with descriptions available and a drawing of one.
  • subgenus Orthocrema - 14 species, with a new key; descriptions are available of all, with drawings of seven species and photographs of six.
  • subgenus Oxygyne - five species; with a new key, descriptions, drawings and photographs of of all are available.
  • subgenus Sphaerocrema - 32 species, three known only as queens; with a new key to workers; descriptions are available of all, plus drawings of 20 species and photographs of twenty-three.
  • subgenus uncertain.
• Genus Cyphoidris - four species; with updated key; descriptions of all are available, with drawings and photographs of two.
• Genus Decamorium - two species; descriptions of both species are available, with a photograph of one
• Genus Dicroaspis - two species; descriptions, drawings and photographs of both are available.
• Genus Diplomorium - monotypic, with a description, drawing and photograph available.
• Genus Melissotarsus - four species (one new and unnamed), with key; descriptions, drawings and photographs are available of all.
• Genus Meranoplus - eight species, with key; descriptions and drawings are available for all species, with photographs of two.
• Genus Messor - 17 species; with descriptions available of all, drawings of 10 species and photographs of four.
• Genus Metapone - one species; undescribed, a photograph is available.
• Genus Microdaceton - five species; with new key; descriptions, drawings and photographs are available of all.
• Genus Monomorium - 153 species; with an introduction and new key Monomorium morphological groups for all Africa based on the species-groupings adopted by Bolton (1987); in part, that format replaced the earlier subgenera, which were synonymised by Bolton; descriptions are available for all species, with drawings of 94 species and photographs of 45 (five without drawings).
• Genus Myrmicaria - 23 species, one is known from the male only. With a new key and descriptions of all but one species; separate species page with descriptions of all but one species, drawings of 20 and photographs of seven.
• Genus Nesomyrmex - revived status Bolton (2003); 10 species; with a new key; descriptions are available of all species, also drawings of nine and photographs of three.
• Genus Ocymyrmex - 37 species; modern descriptions of all are available together with a modern key, plus drawings of 23 and photographs of four.
• Genus Oligomyrmex - 33 species, three not fully described, eight known only from the worker (or worker and queen) and two known only from the queen. With new keys to major and minor workers; descriptions are available of all but onespecies, with drawings of 17 species and photographs of nine.
• Genus Paedalgus - nine species are recognised, one only from the queen, with a key to workers; descriptions of all species are available, with drawings of eight species and photographs of two (one without a drawing).
• Genus Pheidole - 82 species, including seven undescribed forms; one only from sexual morphs and one with a dubious status; descriptions are available of all but two species, with drawings of 44 and photographs of 48 (five of which are not shown as drawings); keys to both major and minor workers have been developed which cover all but seven of the species; to help with comparison of species, a number of tentative species-groups have been adopted -
  • Tentative key to major workers and Tentative key to minor workers.
• Genus Pheidologeton - eight species, of which one is a dubious record of the tramp species, P. diversus, the worker is known for only four species; descriptions are available all, with drawings of three and photographs of two.
• Genus Pongara - (provisional) new genus, one species, with genus definition, species description and photographs.
• Genus Pristomyrmex - five species, with a key; descriptions and drawings of all are available, also photographs of three.
• Genus Pyramica - genus revived by Bolton (1999) with synonymy of a number of genera; the Africa genera which were reviewed earlier by Bolton (1983), are retained now as subgenera.
  • subgenus Cladarogenys - monotypic; with a description and drawings.
  • subgenus Epitritus - six species, with a key to workers; descriptions are available of all with a key to workers; drawings are given for four species and photographs of two.
  • subgenus Glamyromyrmex - 12 species, with a key to workers; all species have descriptions available, nine with drawings, seven with photographs.
  • subgenus Serrastruma - 12 species, one is known only from inquiline queens; with an updated key; a separate page has details of all the species, with descriptions available of all; drawings of 10 species and photographs of eight.
  • subgenus Smithistruma, including the synonymised Miccostruma; 36 species, with an updated key; descriptions are available of all; drawings of 24 species and photographs of sixteen.
  • subgenus Trichoscapa - monotypic tramp species, with descriptions, drawings and a photograph.
• Genus Quadristruma - monotypic, with information, drawings and photographs available.
• Genus Rhoptromyrmex - five species, one known only from the queen; descriptions and drawings are available of all, plus photographs of three.
• Genus Solenopsis - 12 species, one known only from the queen; with a new key to major and minor workers; descriptions are available of all, with drawings of eight species and photographs of three.
• Genus Strumigenys - 44 species, with an updated key; descriptions are available for all but two species, with drawings of 30 species and photographs of twenty-four.
• Genus Temnothorax - two species; with a new key; descriptions and drawings are available of both.
• Genus Terataner - six species, with an updated key; descriptions are available of all, plus drawings of five species and photographs of five species, one being without a drawing.
• Genus Tetramorium - 214 species, with an introduction and a new key based on the species-groupings adopted by Bolton.
  I have retained Triglyphothrix and Triglyphothrix as subgenera for ease of separation; also with an alphabetic list of all species.
  Descriptions are available for all, with drawings of 151 and photographs of forty-one.
  • Genus Tetramorium species-groups known from sub-Saharan Africa - an interactive graphical key in five parts:
    • Introduction and former Triglyphothrix species-groups.
    • former Xiphomyrmex species-groups.
    • former Tetramorium (Tetramorium) species-groups with long antennal scapes.
    • former Tetramorium (Tetramorium) species-groups with short antennal scapes and small eyes or with larger eyes and squamiform petioles.
    • former Tetramorium (Tetramorium) species-groups with short antennal scapes, larger eyes and nodiform petioles; also short frontal carinae.
    • former Tetramorium (Tetramorium) species-groups with short antennal scapes, larger eyes and nodiform petioles; also long frontal carinae.
• Genus Wasmannia - a single introduced tramp species, with descriptions available, also a drawing and photographs.

Subfamily Ponerinae - with illustrated key to genera

• Genus Anochetus - 19 species, with an illustrated key; descriptions are available of all, with drawings of 16 species and photographs of 16 (one being without a drawing)
• Genus Asphinctopone - three species, with descriptions and drawings of all, plus a photograph of one
• Genus Boloponera - monotypic, with link to description (2006) and a photograph.
• Genus Centromyrmex - ten species are known from Africa; a new key is provided covering those and all other described species from Asia (two) and the Neotropics (three); descriptions are available of all named species, with drawings of six of the African species and all five other species, plus photographs of all the African species, and of two from other areas.
• Genus Cryptopone - one species, plus one unnamed forms; the description of the named species is available, together with a drawing; one of the unnamed forms is shown in a photograph.
• Genus Dolioponera - one species, with a description, drawing and photograph.
• Genus Feroponera - one species; with linked description and photograph.
• Genus Hypoponera - my review of the African species descriptions and specimens, plus the descriptions of a number of Indo-Australian and American species leads me to separate the genus into -
  • a hypoponera species group - 12 species; descriptions are available of all the species, with drawings of 10 species and photographs of seven
  • and, a similoponera species group - further separated into two species complexes, the similoponera-complex, 13 species; and, the squamoponera-complex, 16 species; descriptions are available of all the species, with drawings of 22 and photographs of 11, of which two do not have a drawing.
• Genus Leptogenys - 56 species, with an updated illustrated key; descriptions of all species are available, with drawings of 30 species and photographs of 18 species (six of which do not have drawings).
• Genus Loboponera - nine species are known, descriptions are available for all named species, plus photographs of all nine and drawings for six
• Genus Odontomachus two species; with a key and descriptions, drawings and photographs of both species.
• Genus Pachycondyla - introduction with keys to historic subgenera (species-groups) and species. Descriptions are available for all 59 species, with drawings of 39 and photographs of forty-two.
• Genus Phrynoponera - five or six species, one being known only from the queen and possibly synonymous with another known only from the worker; with descriptions of all, drawings of four and photographs of five, one being without a drawing.
• Genus Platythyrea - 14 species, one known only from the sexual stages, with a new key; descriptions of all are available, with drawings of eight species and photographs of ten.
• Genus Plectroctena - 18 species, with an updated key; descriptions of all are available, together with drawings of 15 species and photographs of seventeen.
• Genus Ponera - one species, which is a tramp species of Holarctic origin; descriptions, drawings and photographs are available.
• Genus Promyopias - one species; with descriptions, drawing and photograph.
• Genus Psalidomyrmex - six species, with an updated key; descriptions, drawings and photographs of all are available
• Genus Streblognathus - two species, with descriptions of both species, drawings of one and photographs of both.

Subfamily Proceratiinae - new status as subfamily from Bolton (2003); with an introduction page, including a new key to separate the three genera known from Africa.

• Genus Discothyrea - seven species, one is known only from the queen, with a new key; descriptions of all are available, together with drawings of three species and photographs of six.
• Genus Probolomyrmex - four species, descriptions of all are available, with drawings of four and a photograph of three.
• Genus Proceratium - six species, descriptions of all are available, with drawings of four plus a photograph of one.

Subfamily Pseudomyrmecinae -

• Genus Tetraponera - 37 species recognised, four of which are known only from the queen, with a new key; descriptions are available for all species, together with drawings of 21 and photographs of sixteen.

References

I have sought to include all relevant references and have followed the listing of Bolton (1995) for references in his catalogue (including the suffix letters, e.g. 1901c).

The references have been subdivided as follows:-

• Ant Taxonomy References - original descriptions and revisionary works
• General and Ant Biology References - A to K
• General and Ant Biology References - L to Z

About the author

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